Lakṣana

那竭城南半由延，有石室，博山西南向，佛留影此中。去十余步观之，如佛真形。金色相好，光明炳著。转近转微，仿佛如有。诸方国王遣工画师摹写，莫能及。

——法显（337–422）《法显传》

Half a yojana south of Nagarahara is a stone chamber in the side of a mountain, facing southwest, where the Buddha left his shadow. Viewed from more than ten paces away, it appears like the Buddha’s true form, golden in color and radiant. As one draws nearer it becomes faint, seeming present yet elusive. Kings from many lands sent artisans and painters to copy it, but none could reproduce it.

Faxian (337–422), A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms

“佛影窟”神话中，释迦牟尼为感化龙王而现身，经文中的“佛”为佛陀实体，“影”自释迦牟尼的实体而生。这里的“佛影”趋近于“影”的本意，即遮日光而生之晦暗色，为暗像。但这里的“影”有金光相伴，是为神学化描绘。佛陀为感悟恶龙，在洞窟内留下自己的影子，见“佛影”如见佛，“佛影”成为了释迦牟尼佛的象征。

In the myth of “Buddha Shadow Cave”, Sakyamuni appeared to influence the Dragon King. The “Buddha” in the scriptures is the entity of Buddha, and the “shadow” was born from the entity of Sakyamuni. The Buddha’s shadow here is close to the original meaning of “shadow”, that is, the thin dark color produced by blocking the sun, which is a dark image. But the “shadow” here is accompanied by golden light, which is a theological description. The Buddha left his own shadow in the cave in order to understand the evil dragon. Seeing the Buddha Shadow is like seeing the Buddha, and the Buddha Shadow has become a symbol of Sakyamuni Buddha.

如是更二百余拜，遂一窟大明，见如来影皎然在壁，如开云雾忽瞩金山，妙相熙融，神姿晃昱，瞻仰庆跃，不知所譬。佛身及袈裟并赤黄色，自膝已上相好极明，华座已下稍似微昧，左右及背后菩萨、圣僧等影亦皆具有。

——《大唐慈恩三藏法师传》

After more than two hundred further prostrations, the entire cave suddenly grew bright. The Tathagata’s shadow appeared clearly upon the wall, as though clouds and mist had opened to reveal a golden mountain. Its wondrous features glowed and its sacred bearing shone. Above the knees, the Buddha’s body and reddish-gold robe were perfectly clear; below the lotus seat they appeared somewhat dim. The shadows of bodhisattvas and holy monks to either side and behind were also fully present.

Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery

后玄奘西行之时，曾特地前往“影窟”所在地瞻仰“佛影”。文本中把玄奘所见称为“如来影”，而非“如来”，没有假装是真正的佛陀现身。此时“玄奘”所见之“如来”并非释迦牟尼实体，“如来影”已不是依托于实体而生之“影”。它脱离了“影”的本意，是一种幻象，是具有“佛”的意向的一个象征，带有了一种“实”的倾向与意味。这种“实”的趋向是向着佛教真谛的靠近，带有“佛”内涵的影、像为“触达佛陀”提供了一种物质性的媒介。

When Hou Xuanzang traveled westward, he made a special trip to the location of the “Shadow Cave” to pay homage to the “Shadow of Buddha”. The text refers to what Xuanzang saw as a “shadow of the Tathagata” rather than “the Tathagata”, without pretending to be the real Buddha appearing. At this time, the “Tathagata” seen by Xuanzang is not the entity of Sakyamuni, and the “Shadow of the Tathagata” is no longer a “shadow” that relies on the entity. It deviates from the original meaning of “shadow”, and is an illusion, a symbol with the intention of “Buddha”, with a tendency and meaning of “real”. This “real” tendency is to approach the true meaning of Buddhism. Shadows and images with the connotation of “Buddha” provide a material medium for “touching Buddha”.

近代已来，人不遍睹。纵有所见，髣髴而已。至诚祈请，有冥感者，乃暂明视。

——《西域记》

In more recent times, no one has been able to see it in full. Even when something is seen, it remains indistinct. Only those who pray with utmost sincerity and receive a hidden response may glimpse it clearly for a moment.

Great Tang Records on the Western Regions

佛教造像始自印度贵霜时代的犍陀罗，在印度各地不断完善，之后传向东南亚各国和中国。在这漫长的传播过程中，佛像造像风格随着各地风貌几经变迁。但造像运动真正兴起，即大量佛像的建造，仍是基于传教的需要。研读佛经、圣地访学等方式虽也可领悟佛理，但门槛过高，并非人人都具有高深的佛理造诣。对于普通人而言，理解佛经与领会佛理并不容易，要如玄奘般达到瞥见“佛影”的境界就更加困难。对于传教的需求而言，直观形象的佛像比艰深难懂的佛经更容易引起信徒的崇拜。于是，为了使每个信徒都能受到佛光庇佑，开始大量建造佛像。实体佛像是对具有佛的象征的“影”的进一步转译。将“佛”的内涵以更加直观的方式展现。

Buddhist statues began in Gandhara in the Kushan period of India, and were continuously perfected in various parts of India, and then spread to Southeast Asian countries and China. During this long process of dissemination, the style of Buddha statues has changed several times with the style of various places. However, the real rise of the statue movement, that is, the construction of a large number of Buddha statues, was still based on the need for missionary work. Although studying Buddhist scriptures and visiting holy places can also comprehend Buddhist principles, the threshold is too high, and not everyone has profound Buddhist attainments. For ordinary people, it is not easy to understand Buddhist scriptures and principles, and it is even more difficult to achieve the state of seeing the “shadow of Buddha” like Xuanzang. For the needs of preaching, the intuitive images of Buddha statues are more likely to arouse the worship of believers than the difficult Buddhist scriptures. Therefore, in order to enable every believer to be blessed by the Buddha’s light, a large number of Buddha statues began to be built. The physical Buddha statue is a further translation of the “shadow” with the symbol of Buddha. It shows the connotation of “Buddha” in a more intuitive way.

凡所有相，皆是虚妄。若见诸相非相，即见如来。

——《金刚般若波罗蜜经》

All appearances are illusory. If one sees that appearances are not appearances, one sees the Tathagata.

The Diamond Sutra

“相”，佛家指事物能被六根（眼、耳、鼻、舌、身、意）与六识（眼识、耳识、鼻识、舌识、身识及意识）所认识的特性，即世间一切皆为“相”。佛教造像是对“佛陀”形象的塑造，即是塑造“相”。信徒朝拜佛像的过程也被称为“着相”。信徒通过“着相”领悟最浅层的佛理。而当学佛理到达更高的境界，大乘佛教则倡导需要破除对“相”的虚妄执迷，即视一切为“非相”。非相就是诸法皆空，视万物皆空、万物皆不是佛，但视万物又都为佛。从“相”到“非相”的转变，即把对参拜佛像的物理剧场，转换到心理剧场，转而倡导信徒内心的证悟。“佛影”图像的第四重内涵，即是破除图像的物质存在意义，转而成为精神上的存在。

“Phase”, Buddhism refers to the characteristics of things that can be recognized by the six roots (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind) and six consciousnesses (eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness, and consciousness), that is, the world is called “phase”. For the image of the Buddha, the Buddhist principles of the shaping layer. When studying Buddhism to a higher level, Mahayana Buddha will guide you to get rid of the illusory obsession with “appearance”, that is, to regard everything as “non-appearance”. “Non-appearance” means that all tears are empty, and everything is not Buddha, but everything is in the form of “non-image”; that is, the fourth connotation of the “Buddha Shadow” image is to break the material “existence” of the image and turn it into a spiritual “existence”.